Continued from: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeus (续)
林奈曾在Critica botanica中重温往昔植物探寻者说:Good God! When I observe
the fate of botanists, upon my word, I doubt whether to call them sane
or mad in their devotion to plants。这一句话应是留在前一贴末尾的,我搁在这
一线头提起。剩下内容不多了,还得精选,争取在圣诞节前完结。以后到Maya Chilam
遗址替玛雅朝拜朝拜,但愿她真有尼采说的“猫有九条命”式的强健!
那一线虽只有十八个贴,也拉得够长的,只好再劈一线,就象音乐的尾声或歌剧的终
场,就叫Finale。虽然,还有一位腾伯格,最重量级的,承继林奈的衣钵,至少也是林
奈逝后,我还是等林奈逝后再将之终结。原谅我那一线留在那儿!
前面说过跳过两节林奈本土行旅,就急急谈到门徒行。其实几位先行门徒与他在本土
并行不悖。他在本土并有两次行旅,前面提过Öland &Gotland两岛屿行,有可能再
勘探西Gothland行省(Västergötland)(1741),可惜因为Gotland岛等船太久,终未
能成行。当然能借到游记(Öländska och gothländska Resa, 1745),还好书写。
1746年他专程勘探了一回Västergötland行省也是在校园里闹得不欢。林奈一有不
欢的事便可以托辞找到旅行,回复自然,这种调剂很有益于身心。我上回用的合图不
太清晰,这回把还得把这行程图再贴一下,也是图中的蓝色行旅:
Linnaeus's explorations of Sweden
林奈1746年6月12日出发,从瑞典最大的湖Vänern南滨一路向西,一直到达西海岸
Gothenburg。再绕湖北边返回,8月11日,行程1,700英里,只有一个人Lidbeck相
伴随。一路上他们遇到不少蒙古医生,其实林奈本人也有点蒙古。后面我再提一点他
的医学实践,除了治性病外,乌普萨拉大学可是当时医学前沿。英国有一位十九世纪
女作家Florence Caddy写过一本Through the fields with Linnæus。她走了林奈
的每一步路,才写了这一本书,书中自然引有不少林奈的笔记旅行(Wästgöte-Resa
[1747]). 虽然她也感慨日记没有英译,她是取的德译:)
在Ällestad,林奈遇到苏格兰著名的冒险家Blackwell(author of 'A Curious Herbal')
夫妇,光顾他们的模范农场(后1747.Blackwell因间谍罪被斩首)。
…when animals die they are converted into mould, the mould into plants.
The plants are eaten by animals, thus forming the animals’ limbs, so that
the earth, transmuted into seed, then enters man’s body as seed and is
changed there by man’s nature into flesh, bones, nerves, etc.; and when
after death the body decomposes, the natural forces decay and man again
becomes that earth from which he was taken.
在Gothenburg海滨,他观察一种当地叫Elof的黑海欧空中强夺他鸟的捕食行为。以后
他也在植物园养了一只gull,并Elof,Elof,驱使它吐食:
It was very amusing to observe how this Cossack harried the other gulls;
the moment one of them had caught a fish, Elof continued pursuing him until
he had disgorged the fish he had caught and already half swallowed. For
several years I kept a tame gull in the botanic Garden, and I used to watch
with amazement how, even if he had had hardly any food, when anyone
chased him he would immediately disgorge what he had eaten. This facility
for easily vomiting has been made use of by the Creator to support our
Elof family, for the herring gulls often catch more than they need and can
afford to give.
回程中他观察了著名的Trollättan瀑布,但觉得跟拉普兰比这只是个玩具。十八世纪
人们尝试挖一条运河,从北海通往巴尔的海。1810年,苏格兰工程师Thomas Telford
终于用多重关闸试验成功,以后,此瀑更是徒有其名:
Trollättan Falls, 1705, from Suecica Antiquaet Hodierna
瀑布上面不远,维纳恩湖北滨,他与同行争执把墓地肥沃的土壤用于农植是不是妥当,
他说了上面Caddy引用的那段话,这段话很有名,是林奈深思广筑的一节:
....Thus when plants chance to sow themselves in this mould they grow
luxuriantly, transmuting the human earth to their nature so that the fairest
maid's cheeks can become the ugliest henbane, and the arm of the most
stalwart Hercules the frailest pondweed. this is eaten by a stinking cimex
[bed bug] and becomes such an animal. This cimex is then eaten by birds
and becomes a bird; the bird is eaten by man and thus becomes a part
of him.
关于林奈的宗教性前面已说了不少,有人以为,所谓林奈工程,其实是宗教和世俗为
主题的一种混合物。人类的使命是感激造物主的慷慨施恩,崇拜他创造的丰富多彩的
宇宙万物。林奈也从未厌倦过对神的歌颂,但对他来说,神是造物主但不是救世主。
林奈这样的认识不乏战略性:自然科学,自然历史学都会受惠于有宗教为凭依。但在
这种对神的感激之中,一种从世俗眼光出发对自然有益于人类的认识已经开始蠢蠢欲
动了。十八世纪的瑞典是实用主义显见的年代,林奈正是其最积极的代言人。自然万
物都有目的,每一个物体都有其目的和功用,而它们的功用大都是有益于人类的。另
外,林奈并没有从神的慈爱的角度罗列所有让人迷恋自然的功用,他的乐观精神的另
一面经常是他对人类悲哀命运和对自然规律的深刻见解的叹息。针对大自然的规律林
奈也发表了多篇论文,例如《大自然的组织法则》(1749)Oeconomia naturae和
《大自然的管理法则》Politia naturae(1760)。自然界有三个关联的阶段:繁殖、
生存与死亡,用粗暴的比喻可以说此物之死,是他物之生的源。在毁亡阶段,肉食动
物作为大自然的警察统治着整个舞台,它们帮忙将自然打点得干净漂亮。传统神学中
的矛盾体现在万能的上帝创造了众多美好事物,但世界仍然充满邪恶和不足。林奈对
这种神学困惑的解释没有停留在浮华绚丽的描写上,而是用血与肉的真实来描绘这个
过程。在林奈看来,人类同其他生物一样都属于自然 生态循环的一部分。从林奈在
《西约特省游记》的摘记中可以看到林奈一天站在墓地中,是如何轻松地哲理人生
大事的:
当我将铁锹插入墓地的土壤时,我撅上来的是一块曾经是人类而今又传递给人类的物
体。当我将它带回我的菜园,在上面种上花菜的时候,我得到是的花菜头,而不是人
头。可当我把这些花菜/头/煮熟,服侍人吃的时候,它们就又变成了人头或是人体
中的其他部位。就是这样,我们咀嚼着我们的死亡,茁壮成长。
林奈对物种秩序的着迷可以追究到他内心深处的不安,这种不安显然存在,并且成为
林奈内心世界心理变化的原因。(希望今天的物种分类学研究不要沾梁上过分吹毛求
疵的毛病)林奈的时代还有一种“大瑞典”炫耀精神。这来源于吕倍克父子的信念宣扬
创造各种覆盖宇宙万物的浩大而又不能实行的工程,这些工程覆盖宇宙间所有的细节
,所有的时代,最好都用物种真实的大小来完成。这种将宇宙间所有伟大创造的来源
都归结到斯堪的纳维亚半岛的认识,听上去近乎痴人梦臆,但让人吃惊的是这种想法
在实际中的影响,尤其是对现代科学成就的影响已经流传到欧洲的各角落。林奈是培
根的信徒,他希望自己能成为生命科学中的牛顿,尽管,他自己对牛顿的认识一直处
于模棱两可中。
林奈的宗教感情,我想,与达尔文一脉相承,虽然一个在教内,一个教外。甚至后来
的尼采,都有小牧师式的感情(都生于牧师家庭)。德国人Goerke的传记中说得更
彻底:Man's place in nature was redefined by Linnaeus, but his image of
the world continued to be that of his time. It was strongly marked by the
impression of the parental parsonage, and in his writings and letters he
often represented himself as a believing Christian who accepted the subordination
of man to God's omnipotence as incontrovertible fact. According to Oscar
Levertin, he is "of all the men of the century the only great writer who
thinks biblically, feels biblically, and writes biblically."
今天礼拜天,我多几个字谈林奈的宗教感情。前面遇Blackwell他就说B是Atheist,
林奈这样的信徒,在左一点的环境,比如天主教宗教裁判下的西班牙,怕是要有问题。
记得哥伦布的书中即说哥危险的思想怕触犯宗教裁判,又说他思想聪明得可以称新教
徒。这么说,新教有这个自然魅力。我读一些宗教传承的书,把尼采与乔伊斯的思想
都放在圣经思想范筹内,严肃的书籍哟。
言归正传,再谈谈林奈的西约特省行。此后,林奈有几段描述,比如Toad与阴湿地的
臭气味的草同趣:I have seen how toads invade a house into which Stachys
foetida has been brought; in Ukraine, where Cotula foetida(stinking mayweed)
is commoner than elsewhere, there are such quantities of toads that every
house is full of them, but as soon as the mayweed withers, the toads also
disappear. 林奈放狗咬蟾蜍,蟾蜍身上的每个毒脉都放出毒,,,让我想起洛尔伽写
的猫吃蟾蜍的景象,又吐了出来。总是很恶心的意象,故而foetida。
还提到一种驱除墙上臭虫的方法,用松节油涂在木墙,薄薄一层,烧!当然这很危险,
Hippocrates说experiment is dangerous,但很有效!另一种方法是用一种薄荷驱虫,
此方法动物界,尤其灵长类也常用。这一段行程中的借景抒情,很精彩:night fell with
its dense darkness - a darkness in which the fir forests seemed to stand like
a wall, twice as high as by day. Summer lightning flickered like ghostly fires,
often without any sound of thunder. Sparks flew as the shoes of the horses
struck against the stones; owls shrieked like ghosts, and the nightjars churned
like spinning wheels; and Vulcan's shirt-sleeved apprentices thundered and
hammered with superhuman strength at their distant forges until, at eleven
o'clock and after a journey of an hour and a quarter, we reached Norum.
九天以后到达Fällingsbro,来路曾经过,两个月已过去。那时原野上的北极花正开放,
如今已谢。秋声将即,林奈赶紧回身赶回乌普萨拉去。行程最后一段当时农作的景象,
很辛苦,很本份,也很田园:
The fields were filled with golden stocks, and between the yellow corn-
stubble green weeds were growing. A wet summer had filled the dykes,
which masses of marsh marigolds clothed in yellow. The waysides were
covered with persicarias, now turning red and beginning to droop their
heads. Everywhere peasants were abroad and hard at work. some of the
men were cutting corn with sickles while their womenfolk, whose heads
and arms were quite white, tied it into bundles. some were carting home
their rye, some threshing, some breaking up the sods, some harrowing
the fields, some sowing winter rye, some hoeing down the barley, some
levelling the fields with rollers, while the herdsmen's children sang and
blew their horns to call home the cattle that were grazing in the more
distant pastures. Then as the chill evening wind began to blow and the
bright sun to dip below the horizon, we came to the garden at Uppsala.
行经的这一片田野,十几个世纪前据说还是大海一片。最近的一轮气候,尤其是湾流
对北欧极其有益。1745年8月11日晚上林奈回到植物园,投身于功名中。
to be continued...
- posted on 12/14/2010
1747年秋天,林奈受令作另一次本土勘探行旅(家乡与Skåne省)。工作过度,四十
二岁他已经累倒,提不起劲头,觉得这是弟子们应该做的事。但国王强硬,他只讲求
了一些条件,钱、出版事宜,把行程推到1749年。然面,整个1748年是他不幸的一
年:首先,他老父亲病逝,儿子不能在身边。父亲临终的话是:卡尔不在身边,卡尔
给过我很多幸福!他弟弟Samuel继承父亲的教职,业余还研究蜜蜂。
父亲的死对他打动深,运气不好,接二连三的事不断。学院中他遭到老朋友的攻击,
他不少提议遭到否定,同人有攻击他的学生举止不当(乌普萨拉大学原只有五百学生
,林奈期间增长了三四倍,此有本土逃避兵役的,更有大量的国际学生)。许多教授
兴许是陈旧的教学方式,招不到好学生,都责怪林奈不要“做得太过了!“这让林
奈两个月不好安睡,都是他信的过的老朋友啊。另外,国际学术界也有嘲讽,法国方
面有人发表了《植物人》L'Homme Plante,对他的“性体系”大加戏弄。林奈是结婚
了的人,对此本不在意,但戏闹成风,耳朵也堵不住。林奈是不太喜欢争论的人。
Hallar从朋友变成敌人,弟伦虽敌对,也还够朋友。林奈生气的时候,总说一个人到
英国牛津去,可惜他不喜欢英国,还有英语也不通。最坏的事还是来自校方的管纪:
教授未经上方同意不能在学期中离开大学七英里外;这对他植物行不利,每次还得向
上方申请。开学后迟到的教授薪水大打折扣;还规定如果在国外发行书籍要重罚金。
林奈把这些都当冲着他来的,在乌普萨拉大学也只有他一人常在国外发行书籍……
1748年秋,一系列的不欢险乎把他击倒,为此他以后一直有忧郁整,不安神。一门
心思只赴入工作中。旅行虽然辛苦,也解身心烦累。
1749年4月29日林奈又只带一学生兼书记员Olof Söderberg出发。这是他最后一次
本土行省考察,以前从来没有出发得这样早,当然Skåne也南。春天,林奈说,让他
想到荷兰!两周后他到达Vrigstad,在妹妹家过了一个生日。两天后回家探亲,父亲
已去,百感交集:
the birds flown, the nest burnt and the brood scattered, so that I hardly
recognized the place where I had been reared....The very uncommon wild
flowers which used to grow here, and which had been the delight of my
childhood, had not survived. Twenty years ago I had known everyone in
the parish; now I found hardly a score of them left.
5月19日,他研究一棵倒下的大像树的年轮,得出暖夏的年轮长得宽大。这开启了年
轮学研究的先河。也许人到中年,林奈的文字中沾染上了东方情趣,也许读了Arthur
Waley译的中国古诗对他的影响。一个多么自然的世界,一个多人为的时代:
BROWN with Sorrel are whole fields lying fallow.
BLUE of the brightest are sloping fields covered with Echium, surpassing in splendour anything that can be imagined.
YELLOW and brightly gleaming are the fields of Chrysanthemum, former ploughed fields of Hypericum and sand-fields of Stoechas citrina.
RED as blood are often whole slopes of Viscaria.
WHITE as snow are sand-fields of the sweet-smelling Dianthus.
DAPPLED are the waysides with Echium, Cichorium, Anchusa and Malva....
这里我找几种植物对照一下原图,也多了解一些瑞典南方行省的植物:
Viscaria oculata 'Tall Red', German Catchfly, 捕虫草, 石竹科
Helichrysum arenarium (L.) Moench. – Syn.: Gnaphalium arenarium L., Gnaphalium
aureum Gilib., Stoechas citrina Gueldenst., 蜡菊
Fields of Viper's-bugloss - Echium vulgare, BLUE, 蓝蓟, 紫草科
5月31日到达Andrum,林奈对一种Corn-frogs的发声产生兴趣。虽然蛙就在水中,但
蛙鸣声好象几里地远传来,这样不至于被发现。他想到把人盖在木桶沉于水中发的声音
机制与此很相似,都能迷惑人。在Tunbyholm,他记载了一只Devine rod(发现失物的)
,欧洲中古一直有这个传说。他把钱包埋起来让人测定,终于证明“神杆”也不能。险
乎丢了他的钱包,包中还有100 ducats呢。6月10日他回到母校Lund大学,发现一切
都变了,变得认不得了,以前熟悉的植被都变得陌生,时间啊:
Pulicaria [P.vulgaris, marsh fleabane] in my day grew in one or two places
only; now it is to be found on every wall. Carduus nutans [musk thistle],
which I had not seen outside Gotland, was also as common on the walls
as the former. Anagallis [pimpernel], which is never to be found further
north, grew there too and in the fallow fields; it opens all its flower at 8
a.m. and closes them at midday...
他对植物开花的时间的准确性开始留意,Crepis(hawksbeard,还羊参,一种菊类)准
六点开,六点半开全,Leontodon(hawkbit,狮齿菊)早晨六七点之间开放,晚上,六
点半还羊参合,七点全合闭。狮齿菊要早一些,五点到六点间。他把花放到室内,还羊
参还是很精确地开合,狮齿菊开花不早于六点,晚六点合闭。林奈由此想到植物钟,此
仍在Uppsala他的植物园中,可惜我去的时候早已不是花的季节。
Hortus Botanicus, PARADISUS dictus, alat plantas numerosissimas.
-- Philosophia Botanica: Carl Linnaeus, 1751
6 AM Spotted Cat’s-ear opens
7 AM African Marigold opens
8 AM Mouse-ear Hawkweed opens
9 AM Prickly Sow-thistle closes
10 AM Nippleworth closes
11 AM Star of Bethlehem opens
Noon Passion-flower opens
1 PM Childing Pink closes
2 PM Scarlet Pimpernell closes
3 PM Hawkbit closes
4 PM Small Bindweed closes
5 PM Water-lily closes
6 PM Evening Primrose opens
《植物哲学》一书中,他阐述了植物物候观测的目的和方法,制订了植物物候观测的
标准。他的植物日历记载有各地植物展叶、开花、果实成熟和落叶的日期,并附有气
候观测记录。1756年经过几年不间断的物候观察,林奈和他的学生Alexander Berger
完成和发表了广受关注的论文《花历》Calendarium florae. Defended 31 March
1756 by Alexander Malachias Berger (1737-1804).
还在是隆德田野,除了一派田园诗意味Every morning early, in everyvillage and
town on the plain, the shepherds blew their horns and shook their rattles.
Then the girls let out the cows, which were collected from all the houses
at the same time...林奈留意到瑞典农作方式的落后,并急急提议要改进:A serious
illness is never cured, except by sheer good luck, unless the doctor is properly
trained in medicine. I have taken on myself to diagnose the illness; I must
now see if I can suggest the cure.
林奈受两种病频繁折磨,一种偏头痛,他自知是抽烟喝酒咖啡引起,但也仰不住。林
奈一生好烟,抽的是长筒烟,有一张画片上他的形象,四十岁就显老了。当然他解
说偏头痛是因为一次弟子Rolander从苏里南寄来的寄来的一棵仙人掌上的cochineal小
昆虫被园丁不小心弄丢了,让他伤心病痛。另一种病是痛风,前面弟子篇提到他写
《植物哲学》时被病痛击倒,即此。这与精力与浓血有关,晚年他脑溢血也与此一脉
相承。关于痛风他还是找到法子的,就是野草莓。据说当朝皇后都在花园里特别种了
一块野草莓,给他医治痛风。Uppsala一带知道他用此止痛,草莓价连夜长了十倍。
6月23号到达Falsterbo,林奈描述当地一种土风舞,还有画图:It was Midsummer's
Eve, and young farm hadns and girls had gathered in the market-place. The
men had brought poles, the girls flowers. The poles were joined together
to form a very high mast with cross-beams, and within a few minutes these
wee all covered with flowers and sreaths....The specially prepared maypole,
which was very splendid, was raised with much shouting and cheering, and
although it was raining the young meople danced round it all night.
沿西部海滨,林奈有没有跨过丹麦去,无从记载。在Helsingborg,遥望Elsinore,
十四年前他游学荷兰一行在此滞留之初。这里他受到各家户的接待,按Caddy说,like
a royal progress。。。要赶着八月开霜前回顾植物园的花卉,回行在家乡稍作停留
,他还发现了一种新物种:Isoetes lacustris, quillwort,一种水生常年生植物。8
月13日赶回植物园,幸好未霜,行程已三个半月!
游记的出版并不顺利,有些内容审查不过,还得删去或更替。吵来吵去,林奈倒能借
力周旋,谁也没有得罪。林奈的《厄兰与哥特兰岛游记》、《西约特省游记》分别题献
给加冕太子Adolf Fredrik及Lovisa Ulrika夫妇。《斯科纳游记》skånska-resa却是
题献Claes Ekeblad伯爵,Tessin的右手人,题首的献诗值得一引:
The peasant rejoices in his green field,
The Hottentot delights in his ugly brats,
Authors hug themselves self-complacently over their works;
But
No fruits reward the tiller's labours
Unless god sends favourable weather;
The success of youth is vain
Unless He who is above all shows grace;
The sciences are pursued in vain
Unless the Patron favours the cause;
and therefore
Ploughmen invoke the Heavens for blessings,
Parents invite a worthy Godfather for their child,
Authors dedicate their works to a Noble Patron....
to be continued...
- posted on 12/15/2010
第一条线提到去拉普兰,写到民俗博物馆就中断了。昨夜好大雪,今天化雪尤其冷,
又感到写拉普兰那天早晨脚趾冻得酸痛,唤我回拉普兰。去拉普兰还有一个目的是看
北极光,第一天黄昏就是雨,雨后虽有极艳丽的晚霞,却也抑不住我对老天失望。浓
云密布,即使有极光也看不见。第二天得换个地方,到Abisco去兴许有希望,站上
有一对澳大利夫妇,是来瑞典来国际会议回程转瑞典拉普兰到挪威乘机看看北极光的,
他们等了三天,后来听专家朋友说因为气候原因,北极光出现要推迟五周。十月初,
得要是十一月中。问讯了一些当地靠得住的人也说要十一月中十二月,看来是我性急
……现在Kiruna应是满天的北极光了,还有IceHotel也应该筑起来了吧。
在拉普兰荒野上Hiking,偶尔能见到残放中的杜鹃Lapland rosebay,熊莓早已红熟
透了,果与叶。红艳的还有花楸的果实,红叶已落尽。苔藓很丰厚,贴地生长的还有
岩梅(Diapensia)、岩高兰(Crowberry)、越桔(Cranberry),花期早过,都结果,
果且也被鸟兽啄了去。矮柳贴着地伸长,成树的也只有桦树,冷杉。冷杉一棵棵树苗
象是种植林,但愿不是种了当圣诞树的吧。这一带最常见的还是云杉Norway Spruce,
那塔形的耐寒松类,在往回挪威的火车路边尽是。住区近一些的地方,植物能感到人
界地上的暖和,品种就多了,花一样开放,Buttercup, Thistle, Daisy, Cosmos,
Cinquefoil, 车轴草Clover当然普遍,花序已呈褐色。。。
在挪威边界,我采集了更多的高山植物叶,木仙花已成白发魔女了,剪秋萝也枯缩将
尽,虎耳草还好。薄公英与转蓬,伞盖已去。爬过大山后面景色宜人,火车上看阳光
照秋色绝壁,主要呈黄色调,与峡湾的蓝海水,海水上蒙一层雾。挪威地处北海滨,
受湾流关照,气候暖和得不得了。这里的雨水充沛,植物极其丰富,当不可以以拉普
拉植物指称,又是港口城市(Narvik),商贸络驿。。。
Saami/Lapland Flag
读林奈拉普兰游记,他七月初在拉普兰的一日植物行。此日日记前两节关于拉普兰人
洗浴早饮挤奶、洗碗勺等第一线有引。也是最常见引用的部分,可是后头关于植物的
往往被忽略。我拉普兰行未赶上盛夏花季,倒是因为林奈与植物。曾也暗誓,如果一
朵花也见不着,就不用写了。好在Uppsala林奈花园的花还多在,拉普兰也见到风中
的Buttercup、蓟、Rosebay,此即够了。第二日晚天色尤其好,带着侥幸还是没能
见到北极光,我有点相信北极光之不可遇了。此行的教训就是,要见北极光,一定得
在圣诞节附近。别的说法,管他是气候还是太阳活动,都属子虚。
但,单是植物一样,亦不虚此行。我把林奈1932年7月7日的游记植物部分转敲并核实
一下,也是给自己不适时的拜访拉普兰植物补一段时间上的缺失:
July 7, 1732; After having walked four or five miles in the course of the
night, I went to sleep in the morning in one of the cottages of the country
....I gathered this day some of the following plants.
Drooping saxifrage (Saxifraga cernua), which has one white flower at the
top of the stem.
Saxifraga cernua L., Nodding saxifrage, bulblet saxifrage. 虎耳草
A very small Pedicularis, Pedicularis flammea. The leaves are brownish,
pinnate; their segments imbricated. Flowers four, five, or more, at the top
of the stem. Petal with an erect upper lip, which is narrow, compressed
and brownish; the lower lip is horizontal, three-cleft, saffron-coloured like
all the rest of the flower.
Pedicularis flammea L., Redrattle, 马先蒿
Yellow mountain saxifrage (Saxifraga aizoides). Flower yellow with large,
flat calyx in five ovate segments.
Saxifraga aizoides L., 虎耳草
'Michelia' (Azalea lapponica), which has an inconspicuous, green calyx in
five obtuse segments. Petal one, erect, gradually dilated upwards, divided
almost down to the base into five ovate segments, purple, deciduous.
Azalea lapponica, (with Diapensias) Syn: Rhododendron lapponica, 杜鹃
Campanula uniflora, which differs from the harebell (C. rotundifolia) in
having the leaves as well as the flower much contracted at the base, so
that the latter is funnel-shaped.
Campanula uniflora, 桔梗
A Lychnis with a concealed flower, Lychnis apetala. Flower solitary at the
top of the stalk. Petals five, oblong, brownish, shaped exactly like the usual
claws of a Lychnis, but without any border. The petals, stamens and pistils
are all concealed within the calyx.
lychnis apetala L., 剪秋萝
剪秋萝,多美丽多姿的花,多好的诗名。我尝试把途中即兴的一些诗歌片段组织在一块,
就以伊为诗名,了却一段心思。
剪秋萝--拉普兰秋日即兴
拉普兰之秋
高原上的湖水一脉沉静
映彻蓝天
湿地上满是苔藓
时间开始沉睡
踏过原野的语言是风
给万物司令!
白桦摇曳,晚霞
天边如燃灼
挪威云杉
立一座稳固的金字塔
谁的心思都已
象湖水中心的礁石一样落定
等严冬降临
9/29/10
to be continued...
- posted on 12/16/2010
前一贴提到宗教情怀,我想在这一贴里花一些篇幅谈谈医。林奈是一个专业医生,现
在看来是蒙古医生也说不定,十八世纪,医生很了不起,能当首相。林奈的许多弟子
也以行医的名义出行,确实他们能医治诸病,草药强,外科更拿得出手。这给他们的
自然行旅也很有益,比如路上生了病,都能自疗自慰。我想到李时珍,他的探行也是
因为自身草药在行,相比之下徐霞客就差一些。拿李时珍与林奈作比,会是一个很大
的课题,我哪里说得动呢?还是专心谈林奈医学成就,好在我一本德文传记是医学专
家写的。我一边宣科,一边学习。
林奈一生的医学专著不少,当然,都是启蒙时代的标准。此外他在乌普萨拉提出187
个议题中,有85个是有关医学的课题:
He [Linnaeus] dictated the sissertations both in Swedish and in Latin, the
correction and polishing of the text being left to the candidates; and although
he did not concern himself about the Latin, he nevertheless showed his
approval when they were well written, and vice versa. To write a disputation,
therefore, took barely three hours, for essentially it was simply a lecture
on the subject, copied down by the candidate.
林奈的博士论文是研究疟疾的,他认为是泥土引起,还有不卫生的饮水,里头恐怕有
许多小虫子。林奈手头有一个显微镜,上面说过虎克发明被列文虎应用研究微生物的,
可惜林奈在微病菌研究上没有上进。林奈思想还是偏综合,仰赖于自己的体系。1757
年他写过一篇Febris Upsaliensis [Uppsala Fever],强调城市卫生的改进,尤其是
饮用水。
...the majority of cases this was a tertian malaria, which in the 18 century
ws endemic in the whole Baltic region. In a letter to Sauvages, Linnaeus
reports a flare-up of the disease in Uppsala, where, in the last three months
of 1754, 300 persons fell ill, among them his own wife. Her symptoms are
so clearly described that the disease can be diagnosed today as a malarial
infection of the tertiary type. As a proven remedy Linnaeus made use of
cinchona bark, though he also recommended other ways and medicals.
林奈热爱大自然,尤其是拉普兰一行对原住民身体健实的观察记忆,使得他一生畅导
饮食学(dietetics,营养学?)。When I saw the healthy Lapps I hit upon certain
principles through which men could double the length of their lives, whthout
sick sickness and on natural principles.从古往希腊以来的作者他都做了通盘研究
,并写了Lachesis naturalis,作了不少公开演讲,Diaeta naturalis;公开演讲系列
的题目Diaeta experimentalis,他列述了不少格言:
Habit is, so to speak, our second nature.
All excess is harmful.
All boiled drinks, including water, are worse than unboiled ones.
Medical science without diet is of little use. He is a fool who trusts medicine when diet can help.
The face is the mirror of body and soul. etc. etc.
饮食或营养学就不多述了,此古印度也一样讲究,究竟非林奈独有。但人是自己最重要
的医生,吃什么,你就长什么,还是自然的。林奈除了疟疾,还对当时的常见病做过广
泛研究,麻疯leprosy(1765), 坏血病scurvy(1775), 麦角中毒ergotism(1763)以及
各种职业病occupational ailments(1765)。他用北欧一种芥辣菜Sauerkeraut治坏
血病。麦角毒前面弟子篇中提过,林奈取名Raphania,以为野芥菜因: St. Anthony's
fire, caused by contamination of grain through Raphanus raphanistrum.
他的论文Morbi artificum[工作病]工作病,林奈总结了意大利职业病发现者Ramazzini
的分析。此外透过他在瑞典各行业的观察分析,提供一些职业的具体病例,比如行医行
业的: During their visits with patients, Doctors are often infected by
epidemic illnesses such as the plague, typhus, dysentery, intermittent fever,
and coughs; by bad air when they sit at sickbeds; and also by brooding
(ruminating) they become melancholy.
有些病从一个人传到另一个人,传染病古已知之。17世纪已有细菌理论,虽有点道尔
顿的原子论,以对应物理医学与化学医学派。发展的过程总是缓慢,pathologia nimata
held microorganisms responsible for the obvious contagiousness of conspicuous
diseases, the extremists among them saw in microorganism the only cause
of all health disturbances.林奈虽不极端,也认为微生物引起诸种病,在1750年
科学会发表的Transactions他写道:It can very possibly be that smallpox, measles,
dysentery, syphilis - yes, the plague itself - are caused by the smallest
worms.以后他还有两篇论文(1757,1767)谈到animalcula viva在whooping cough,
smallpox, intermittent fever, tuberculosis, leprosy病中的要害角色。他以螨
(acarus)虫mites引起疥疮(scabies)作为凭据。虽然他手头有一部显微镜(loup microscope)
,但也没有做更深入的研究。启蒙时代的人都有点大大趔趔,具体的投入也许条件
不成熟,也许性格使然,让后人去做。毕竟,他的心思已放在植物分类上。虽然,
他的论文Mundus invisibilis[看不见的世界]中他说:
Its is no wonder that these microorganisms which, in respect to smallness,
exceed a hundredfold the dust particles dancing in a sunbeam, can drift
about in the air and be broadcast everywhee. They very smallest animals
quite possibly cause greater devastations than the largest; yes, they perhaps
kill more men than all the wars.
当然,林奈最强的肯定是草药学materia medica领域,届于他的植物学背景。在斯德
哥尔摩行医期间他一直专注于1686的药物宝典Stockholm Pharmacopeia的药方medi
-caments,这官方钦定的药物说明dispensatory,还有1699年的medical list。他
把钦定药物按他的系统重新分类,添加药物处理与用取说明。这里的工作不亚于李时珍
了。通过他医学院长的朋友Abraham Bäck,并由皇家资助,1774年第一本瑞典药方
书得以发行。这是公益事业,不讲私名,虽然他具体的著作还有一些:in 1749 Materia
medica in which medicines from vegetable sources are treated; a year later
a dissertation describing medicines from the animal kingdom; and in 1752, in
another dissertation, an inventory of the remedies from the mineral kingdom.
In 1749 he published Materia medica. That’s a Latin term for medicine and
the book is a list of plants, minerals and animals that Linnaeus considered
could be used in medicine.
在药物学具体领域中他展开许多讨论,写了大量文章,一直倡导药典更新。独衷简单
的药方,他曾在Materia media中说:Whoever prescribes medicines with long
formulas sins, either out of deceitfulness or out of ignorance. 其后弟子J. C.
D. Schreber修订的莱比锡版本(1772)中他的药物学思想得到全面的贯彻。虽然第一
版只是一些参考医生、药剂师。In tabular form and with epigrammatic brevity,
the medical plants, for the most part tested by Linnaeus himself, were
listed, along with their alternative names, their place of origin, their pharma
-cological effect, the usual recommended form of application, and the
preparations in which they were contained.
林奈强调本土药物,不仅是国民经济,另外也新鲜,研究得彻底,合人心胃。在瑞典
南方广泛种植药物,1753年他给出一个名列。另外,他指导采药,保存,制药的具
体细节,着重提示药剂师要注意药物的纯净与药性。人类自右就尝试把药物分排别类。
林奈新的排列方式跟疗效挂勾,他以为相似类的植物有相类的疗效,这种思想至今还
是合理。另外,他把药物的气味与味道当作它们药效指标。这不自觉已涉及化学成份
。味重的药物,最影响神经系统。总之,他分排药植用的是十种气味,十种口味,药
物针对特别的病类。此思想至今未被科学证实。只是他这一方面的著述远不象他的植
物学那么广为人知,许多作品还是1954年瑞典林奈会(成立于1917年)编辑出版的。
他超强的观察与总结能力,使得他对每个问题都能作出一番结论,他反对医生开过重
的药物,说:whether a substance was to be regarded as a "poison" or a
"medicine" depended upon dosage, and that the exclusion of so-called
poisons from the medical armamentarium was simply a sign of ignorance
of the operation of medicine in general.
林奈编排病类系统,目的想从病征就轻易判断出病。他同样关注不同病群间的关系,
与不同药物类的关系。但那个时代病理学pathology几乎只注重病征,不太关于原因。
因此他的想法不能产生立即的效应,但对后世有启发,理性推断疾病一直是瑞典医
学的重要特点。
Genera Morborum (1759) by Carl Von Linnaeo
Clavis medicinae duplex [double key to medicine], a work of thirty-one
pages in which he sought to define the inner relationships between diagnosis
and therapy, between symptoms and the effect of medicine. This book is
also of tables, and its content can be interpreted oly with difficulty.
林奈说,即使最有学问的人也需要一生学习。人身体被比作植物结构,有皮(Corticale
vitale)有核(Medullare animale)。皮源于父,由骨、肌、血、肠。核源于母亲,
有脑与神经系统。皮属于外在Key,核Inner Key。Linnaeus's conception of the
effect of drugs is based on the notion that the bark is affected by medicines
characterized by taste and the core by those characterized by smell.
1732年秋天在Uppsala大学林奈首次接触外科手术,参加一个同学的私人讲座。林奈
的笔记一直保留下来。以后,他一直不同意外科手术界的专断与等级分明which under
the leadership of able representatives educated abroad had emerged from
the condition of barber-sugeons.为保留他们的特权,竭力反对把手术置入大学课
程。1747年在De Chirugiae fundamento ex medicina [论手术的医学基础]他提出
A thorough knowledge of general medicine and above all of anatomy was
the indispensable prerequisite of any education in sugery and that could
only be offered at universities.
十年后,1758年,他强调一个结业的医学生必须亲眼目睹一次医院手术。让他高兴
的是,1775年他的弟子Adolf Murray被授以解剖与外科手术主席,外科不久就在乌
普萨拉大学成立一系。
林奈重视公共卫生事业,他对Pomerania(1757-62)战争中军医不合格表愤怒。军
方政界当然对他不予理会,林奈一直把饮食学与公共卫合结合在一起,并由大学的医
生与牧师传布开去。他着文宣传公众健康,以接受自然饮食,并论述白兰地、巧克力、
茶对身体有益。他也给公众提出动物的疾病,兽医也应专门教育。在兽医领域他有弟
子Pehr Hernquist。林奈在大学执掌过一段时间教务,那期间,说学生都不给他惹麻
烦。他不只是对学界有此提仪,并且对政界,甚至对当朝国王Adolphus Frederick
也如是倡议一种科学精神--If the sciences are to be brought to fruition with
proper vigor it is necessary:
that the sciences should be allowed to enjoy ennobling freedom,
that professors should be adequately compensated so that they do not have to divide up their time to earn a living,
that they should work in competition with one another and not under compulsion; for an unwilling nurse raises stepshildren,
that the sciences should be as attractively presented as possible to the student, so that the latter may feel spontaneous love for them,
that the youth who have made respectable progress in sciences should received credit and not have worked in vain.
to be continued...
- posted on 12/18/2010
多謝xw另線釋疑。
"剪秋蘿"玲瓏有致, 的確好詩名.
頭回聽說. 查了一下, 又叫"漢宮秋". 但圖卻是兩樣. 或許"生南爲桔,生北爲枳"之不同?
"湖水一脈沉静"的詩.
"Habit is, so to speak, our second nature. "
此說甚合吾意.
xw wrote:
lychnis apetala L., 剪秋萝
剪秋萝,多美丽多姿的花,多好的诗名。我尝试把途中即兴的一些诗歌片段组织在一块,
就以伊为诗名,了却一段心思。
剪秋萝--拉普兰秋日即兴
拉普兰之秋
高原上的湖水一脉沉静
映彻蓝天
湿地上满是苔藓
时间开始沉睡
踏过原野的语言是风
给万物司令!
白桦摇曳,晚霞
天边如燃灼
挪威云杉
立一座稳固的金字塔
谁的心思都已
象湖水中心的礁石一样落定
等严冬降临
9/29/10
他列述了不少格言:
Habit is, so to speak, our second nature.
All excess is harmful.
All boiled drinks, including water, are worse than unboiled ones.
Medical science without diet is of little use. He is a fool who trusts medicine when diet can help.
The face is the mirror of body and soul. etc. etc.
- posted on 12/19/2010
In 1756 the royal family unsuccessfully attempted a coup d'etat. Lovisa
Ulrika had long resented that her husband was no more than a puppet king,
dancing the the strings controlled by the Diet. She forced him to assert
himself by refusing to sign certain documents submitted to him by his
ministers; the ministers replied by rubber-stamping. The Queen counted upon
the support of the army, but her conspiracy was discovered; many heads
fell, and many court offcials were unsaddled.
因为前一年欠收,是年瑞典卷入著名的七年战争。七年战争(1756年-1763年)是
欧洲两大军事集团即英国-普鲁士同盟与法国-奥地利-俄国同盟之间,其中汉诺威、
葡萄牙为英普的盟友,法俄奥的盟友则为西班牙、萨克森、瑞典,为争夺殖民地和霸
权而进行的一场大规模战争。所以又称英法七年战争,其中发生在北美地区的英国针
对法国及印第安的战争称为法国和印第安战争--这是美国的通俗说法,是以英国的两
个主要敌人来命名的。普奥之间的战争则称第三次西里西亚战争。战场遍及欧洲大陆、
地中海、北美、古巴、印度和菲律宾等地。这次战争对于18世纪后半期国际战略格局
的形成和军事学术的发展均产生了深远影响。
As King, Adolphus Frederick had even less influence in internal affairs than
his predecessor, and his wife’s attempt to wield political power also failed.
She was far more successful, however, in her efforts to advance the arts and
sciences. The gifted son of Adophus Frederick and Louisa Ulrica came to
throne in 1771 as Gustavus III, and the following year he restored absolute
power to the crown through a coup d’etat. The influence of the nobility and
the estates was curtailed, the rights of the peasants were widened, and
tortured was abolished, Gustavus III was assassinated by political opponents
on March 16, 1792, at the opera ball in Stockholm.
这就是威尔弟《假面舞会》中的那位主角皇帝。这样陆陆续续我把瑞典林奈一生经历
的历史大事都理了一通。1771年古斯塔夫登基后林奈已处于半退休状态,教职一部分
由他的儿子小卡尔接替,这一点也是当朝皇后Louisa Ulrica嘉许的,跟林奈鉴定她的
自然史收藏有关。前面提到林奈女儿的教育或是不教育,皇后要收一位进宫学习,被
林奈婉言谢绝了。林奈协助皇后的收藏鉴定出了一本书Museum S.R.M. Ludovicae
Ulricae(1764),about two-thirds of its 720 pages are devoted to insects, and
the remainder to shells. 以后小卡尔去英国的游学费用也是应王后嘉许。
十八世纪自然史收藏是上层社会的重要兴趣,启蒙时代,对自然文化的发展极益。从
十七世纪的天才物界学发展到十八世纪的宏观启蒙,自然史得到全面发展。此不只在
瑞典,英国、法国、荷兰、丹麦以至于俄国都是。Tessin伯爵喜欢收藏矿物与蜗牛类,
妻子喜好植蔬,林奈也帮助他们鉴定收藏并著书Museum Tessinianum(1753)。
国王Adolf Dredrik自加冕王子始就酷爱自然收藏,林奈曾于1746年跟他分门别类过。
后五年他不时被请入宫Ulrikasdal & Drottningholm整理皇家收藏品。Ulrikasdal多
是动物a splendid cabinet of various animals preserved in alcohol, innumberable
stuffed birds, and an unbelievable quantity of pinned insects and shells
in little boxes. 林奈着眼三界,他曾说过:Minerals grow, Plants grow and live,
Animals grow, live, and have feeling. 故而他最先提到人,在《自然系统》首版
中给的拉丁命名是:Homo Nosce te ipsum(人,认识你自己)
http://linnaeus.nrm.se/zool/madfrid.html.en
前头提到林奈的花钟,除此之外,林奈还着有花历。论花历,中国传统物候学也不少
记载,民间还有花与月相连的歌。我提林奈的花历Calendar of Flora,更是因为此
历命名后来被法国大革命引用a timetable for the four seasons; it was reprinted
by Benjamin Stillingfleet in an English translation in 1762. Many of the
Latin names given by Linnaeus to the months closely resemble those coined
later for French Revolutionary Calendar: Brumalis(month of fog - Brumaire)
, Germinationis(month of buds - Germinal), and Messis(month of reaping -
Messidor),,,这不会是巧合,后面我引一段法国革命的旗手之一卢梭的书信为证。
The 'Calendar of Flora', 1756
启蒙主义确实贯彻人心社会,够彻底。卢梭与林奈通讯,1771年9月21日:Alone with
Nature and with you, I spend happy hours walking in the countryside, and
from your Philosophia Botanica I get more real profit than from all other
books on ethics....I read your works, study them and reflect on them; and
I revere you and love you with all my heart.这确实让老林奈欢欣,林奈最喜
欢人夸赞了。当然,林奈许诺过Boerhaave的那句不与争议作家联系的话让我记忆忧
新,当时Boerhaave怕是指的伏尔泰,但卢梭。林奈与卢梭具体有多少联系,我也只
有单面之辞。无独有偶,歌德到意大利旅行,身边一直带着林奈:his terminology
firmly stamped on my mind.晚年他跟Zelter说:I have recently been re-reading
Linnaeus, and was amazed by this extraordinary man. I have learned an
enormous amount from him, and not only in botany. With the exception of
Shakespeare and Spinoza, I do not know anyone among no longer living
who has so strongly influenced me.
林奈最重要的作品(magnum opus),1753年5月发表的《植物种志》(Species
Plantarum),第一卷题献给国王与王后,第二卷三个月后发行。两卷共1200多面,
凭籍他的“性系统”作经纬,由属及种,前人命名有改动的物种必列出“异名”录。
两卷共有5900种植物,分布在1098个属。这项浩大的工程以前也有巨手作过,但
都因为时机不成熟而被遗弃了,林奈天时地利人和,缺一样都不行。《植物种志》
的发行,林奈植物二名法在科学界得到确定,以后1758年第十版《自然系统》第一
卷,动物命名也得到肯定。
前面提到1758年林奈在哈马比买了一套农庄,以防火灾并建筑了自己的标本室。这
回在Uppsala时间不巧,虽然在乌普萨拉的时间不短,没能去Hammarby走访一趟。
林奈一生的足迹,我走的也极有限,原来也不知道有这么多。照理更不能写出这许多
字来。当世许多迷林奈的青年,真是他的每一步足迹都走访了,此以英、德人为最。
关于哈马比山庄,我就附几张照片,不知道什么时间能去再访,还有伦敦的林奈会
博物馆,也是要走一走的。
Linnaeus's house at Hammarby, engraved by Akrell in 1820
1766年,乌普萨拉又一场大火,三分之一城区化为灰烬,最危险的时候林奈的屋子
也危急。前面提过他的老师小吕倍克的拉普兰标本及著作在1702年一场大火中化为
灰,以至于改行语言学。林奈接受教训,在哈马比农庄筑了一间标本陈列室,他自称
my little backroom, the pleasure pavilion on my hill, my castle in the air,
还有my museum in altis,很小的一进,象个佛教的塔亭:
At less than 16 foot square this tiny museum which Linnaeus had built on
a knoll above the house at Hammarby following the 1766 Uppsala fire.
尽管尺寸有限,林奈尝试把植物,贝壳,昆虫还有矿石收藏一古脑塞进去,这屋子没
有暖气,他并把图书馆珍贵藏书与自己的重要著作一并收藏。有时,他也在此带学生
课。因为没有取暖设施,很不幸,里中收藏不少受潮湿侵害。当林奈移居哈马比后,
他的弟子们多在附近村民家里寄宿,林奈早晚都要到学生聚会处打发一些时间,一谈
起来,往往忘了时间。废寝不会,林奈睡眠很有效率,忘食,尤其是早晨是常有的事
,因为林奈夫人并不高兴。
to be continued...
- posted on 12/19/2010
谢谢远山鼓励!我想,再有两贴就结束了,还要拥出一些时间核实一些内容。写的时候
记忆一飞翔就怕不靠谱了,我已把前两条线打印并勘误,但一直还没有时间更正。
遠山 wrote:
多謝xw另線釋疑。
"剪秋蘿"玲瓏有致, 的確好詩名.
頭回聽說. 查了一下, 又叫"漢宮秋". 但圖卻是兩樣. 或許"生南爲桔,生北爲枳"之不同?
"湖水一脈沉静"的詩.
"Habit is, so to speak, our second nature. "
此說甚合吾意.
xw wrote:lychnis apetala L., 剪秋萝
- posted on 12/20/2010
1764年5月,林奈受Uppsala fever的严重攻击,好不容易还是在宿敌Rosén的疗治下
得到恢复。此后他俩也就和好了,Rosén的医术肯定高明,曾任王家首席医生。两年后
Rosén也得此病,林奈回治他。1773Rosén临终前病(痢疾, dysentery)床头也有林
奈陪伴。林奈与斯德哥尔摩医学院长Bäck的关系一直很好,还担任Bäck女儿的教父。
Bäck不幸中年丧妻,两位老人关系更紧密了。可惜Uppsala与Stockholm距离遥远,也
只能书信交谊:All this summer I have been intending to go to Stockholm to
see you once more before I die; but day after day pressure of business
has prevented me....有时Bäck的女儿担当他们交流的信使。
1769年春天,哈马比农庄装修结束后,加冕王子Gustaf亦来了。以后朝拜者不少,
除了常年寄宿邻村的弟子,有不要国际人物,以旅行者与富豪居多,比如巴尔的摩爵士
(其时他拥有整个马里兰州)远道来朝就为了一堂自然史课,学费昂贵:a superb gold
snuffbox, a dressing-case valued at 12000 crowns, and a hundred ducats!
还给林奈一首拉丁文献诗,一首长诗,flattering,林奈自然喜欢,但诗本身据说很
糟乱。
1772年,林奈荣誉全欧洲,没有哪国的科学会他不是荣誉会员。他累了,没办法跟
那么多方面通讯。此刻,他也感觉到死亡将近,他与Bäck的信中如是说:
Many things have happened to warn me that my time is nearly up and that
my fate will be a stroke; I get giddy, especially when I bend down, and
stumble like a drunken man....There is nothing surprising in this, for I have
come to an age which not nine people in a hundred reach. I have exerted
my body and my mind to their uttermost limits - and I am worn out. Perhaps
God will take me in time to spare me the misery that must inevitably lie
ahead...
新皇(Gustaf III)加冕,他因为校务而不能亲临,只能让妻子与女儿代行。此期间有
关他的第一手描述有一位他著名的弟子J.A.Murry,现已掌哥廷根大学自然学首席(我
想他一直推Solandar或Thunberg到彼得堡去也有这个意思,传道有点孔子)。他于
1772年到哈马比农庄看望老师后如是陈述:in this great man the same warmth,
vivacity and enthusiasm for collecting rare objects of natural history that
I had admired in him in the old days when I attended his lectures....他感
觉他的对手们如果亲眼见到这位老人,一定个举手甘服。Murray看到林奈案上《自
然系统》十二版的未定稿,以后拿到德国去发行,这一部分专门谈的植物。
另一位是冰岛人Hannes Finnson,是跟着林奈一个弟子来的,他的描述就显隔了一些:
His fire, people say, still burns brightly, and you can see it in his eyes. He
is a short man with a powerful bone structure, and not particularly good
-looking. His way of speaking is rather chilly and aloof, yet agreeable, and
he is somewhat obstinate; in short he is like a Ductchman.
担任了三期Uppsala大学Rector的校务,他退休的演说也很有意思,提到自然学的美
妙之处他洋溢着诗意之情,谈到动物:
Vampires, which suck the blood of sleepers.
The Polecat, which defends itself with its foul stench.
The Opossum, which conceals its young in its belly...
鸟类被他描述成:cavalry, light, nimble, resplendently clad.两栖类(其时两栖类
包括爬行类):ugly, horrible, naked pack, on foot.最后他感谢学子们在他当校长
期间没给他惹麻烦。
1773年林奈感染咽狭炎(angina),随后坐骨神经痛(sciatica, from the hip to the
knee)。以后是疾病不断。尽管如此,他还是多次出行到斯德哥尔摩参予修订圣经的
瑞典语新译。他说,来回一趟首都比他整个拉普兰行还吃力。也是在此期间,林奈画
了上面著名的画像,此我在他旧居博物馆看到一版,在一百克郎的瑞币上用的也是这
幅,在网上更是被人随意搞笑。画者是Alex Roslin,Roslin一般画像收费颇高,但林
奈只是敬意,一份献礼。原件在卢浮宫,两份复制件在瑞典,我看到的应是一份复制
品,还有一份拷贝在英国伦敦林奈会。
来年五月他与私授弟子们在花园上课时,忽然中风倒下,这死神第一次传讯。以后他
从没能恢复常态,其间的安慰是女大当嫁冲喜,还有弟子们从世界各地传来的音讯:
The King of England has established a very large garden containing every
obtainable plant, and beside each plant is a wooden label bearing its generic
and pecific name according to my system. The King of France did the same,
more than two years ago, at the Tiranon near Versailles. A new chair of
zoology has been founded in Edinburgh, and the instruction given there follows
tha plan laid down in my Systema animalium. About fifteen years ago the
Pope [Clement XIII] ordered the burning of all my works entering the Papal
States; now he [Clement XIV] has dismissed a professor of botany who did
not understand my system and replaced him by another professor. The latter
has orders to adopt my new system in his public lectures....
Linnaeus's letter to Thruberg, 29 October, 1774
西班牙自然学家Jose Celestino Mutis寄给他一批颇有价值的哥伦亚鸟类、植物与植
物图绘,国王也给他寄来礼物。1775年圣诞新年之际,他过得很高兴。给当世瑞典国
王古斯塔夫三世,他也回赠了礼品--一属植物名,Gustavia:
Gustavia superba, Lecythidaceae, 玉蕊科
Never in my life have I spent a pleasanter christmas. His Majesty was so
wonderfully gracious as to give me sixteen great chests containing plants
preserved in spirits of wine - just as they grow, with their flowers and
fruit....They are all from South America, and include a whole lot of new
genera and species.
1775年8月新王亲驾到林奈的府上,那天大雨,林奈夫人特亲卫队都来家中避雨。来
年林奈偶尔还能带带私课,但学生们多难听得清他讲话。秋天,他已very decrepit
and broken,只脸上强装出勇气。这期间不少人对林奈夫人给他工作压力表示义愤:
他几乎每天都会从轮椅上跌到地下来。还有儿子,以他的名义张扬事情,虽然他的能
力极有限:he evidently possessed many of the elder Linnaeus's gifts but
was long thwarted in their expression, being overshadowed by his father's
greatness like an oak sapling coming up too near the parental tree.
Carl Linnaeus Junior, depicted here by Jonas Forsslund.
1776-7年冬,林奈又有一次中风:Although he is now more dead than alive,
one could see his face light up when he caught sight of one of his beloved
pupils or when the conversation turned to natural history.这学生应是才从
库克船HMS Resolution环球回来的斯巴曼。When he found lying near him a
book on botany or zoology, even one of his own. Then he would turn the
pages with evident pleasure, making it clear that he would consider himself
a happy man if he could have written anything so useful.
医生让他多透新鲜空气,但看护被告知不能把他带到小镇外面去。十二月的一天,
他乘小雪撬出去,想到哈马比农庄,态度强硬。回程中担了些雨雪,这也是他最后
一次出门。不久就病发,疼痛难当。年底又添重,1778年一月十日林奈逝世。
Lay me in a coffin unshaven, unwashed, unclothed, wrapped only in a sheet.
Nail down the coffin forthwith, that none may see my wretchedness. Let the
great bell of the Cathedral be tolled, but no those in other churches in
the town or in the Hospital, and in the countryside only the bell in Danmark'
s church. Let thanksgiving services to God, who granted me so long a life
and so many blessings, be held in the Cathedral and in Danmark's church.
Let men from my homeland carry me to the grave, and give to each of them
one of the little medals bearing my portrait. Entertain nobody at my funeral,
and accept no condolences.
葬礼在一月二十二日举行,他的弟子Afzelius经年后记叙,显然遗嘱没有如他愿进行:
Linnaeus's funeral in Uppsala Cathedral was the most stately ceremony that
I had ever seen, and it made a deep impression on me which has lasted to
this very day. It was a still and gloomy evening, the darkness relieved
only by the torches and lanterns carried by the mourners, the silence broken
only by the murmur of the large crowds lining the streets and the heavy
tolling of the great bell - the bell which had so annoyed Linnaeus in his
lifetime....
林奈的躯体埋在乌普萨拉大教堂近入口处的青石下。他曾要求一个青铜牌刻上他的名
,生死日期,以及拉丁文Pinceps botanicorum--植物王了。
If seas and mountains can keep us asunder here, yet surely the Father of
Wisdom and Science will take away that veil and these obstacles when this
curtain of mortality drops; and probably I may find myself on the skirts of
a meadow, where Linnaeus is explaining the wonders of the world to legions
of white candid spirits, glorifying their maker for the amazing enlargement
of their mental faculties.
Alexander Garden, letter to Linnaeus, 1761
Gardenia jasminoides L., 栀子,Rubiaceae, 茜草科
to be continued...
- posted on 12/20/2010
林奈走后,留给妻子与孩子相当丰厚的家产,此还不包括他的书籍与自然收藏。1776年
3月2日林奈留下的一封致妻子的信,那时他对儿子极不欢喜。这封信声明要死后才能开
启,信中他说:Voice from the grave to her who was my dear wife:
1. The two herbaria in the Museum. Let neither rats nor moths damage them.
Let no naturalist steal a single plant. Take great care who is shown them.
Valuable though they already are, they will be worth still more as time goes on.
They are the greatest collection the world has ever seen. Do not sell them for
less than a thousand ducats. My son is not to have them because he never
helped me in botany and does not love the subject; keep them for some son
-in-law who may prove to be a botanist.
2. The shell cabinet is worth at least 12,000 dalars.
3. The insect cabinet cannot be kept for long, because of moth.
4. The mineral cabinet contains things of great value.
5. The library in my museum, with all my books, is worth at least 3,000 copper
dalers. Do not sell it, but give it to the Uppsala Library. But my son may have
my library in Uppsala at a valuation.
Carl Linné
葬礼一结束家里就吵开了花,或者说,多年积的内恨终于爆发,掌门不再。儿子信不
过,穷闹一阵,最后用家产的一部分换来上列的遗产。妻子从国王那儿申请了一小笔
年金,并给未婚的女儿嫁妆。小卡尔成了一家之主,他把林奈遗产的自然收藏从哈马
比移到乌普萨拉,想方设法保护,可惜蛾、鼠与潮湿侵害严重,他自称每天象劳工一
样辛勤折腾不停。他拒绝了Joseph Banks用1200英磅的价钱收购的要求,这保证了
林奈遗产不至于离开本国。
可惜1783年小卡尔不幸亦中风倒毙,一切又回到母女手中。屋子要转手给腾伯格,林
奈夫人想早一些脱走,能卖个好价钱。她请教林奈旧弟子J.G.Acrel代她请问Banks是
否还有买的意思。那时Banks正早餐聚会,席间有一位二十四岁的青年自然学者James
Edward Smith.因为Banks财政状况比前次欠佳,不再想要了,倒竭力催促Smith竞投
这笔宝贵遗产。Smith答应了,只用了一千几尼就买下了林奈所有的自然学遗产,这笔
不世的家当。
还有竞争者在Baron Alstomer,Empress Catherine II,Dr John Sibthorp。乌普
萨拉大学有学生呼叫:林奈遗产要保留在瑞典,Thunberg也以为是。国会秘书长提议
国王过问,可惜国王在意大利。来回通讯还没有谈成之即,Smith已经谈扰了这笔交
易。1784年9月17日,林奈图书馆与自然收藏全部经斯德哥尔摩乘船,几个星期后到
达伦敦,平安无失。瑞典顿失不世遗产,引起不少争议,林奈的弟子还有朋友都受到责
备,但也无奈,最后都归拢于国王不在家,哈哈。
And how great was the loss! Smith, when he eagerly unpacked the 26 large
chests, found even more than he had been led to expect. In all there were
about 19,000 sheets of pressed plants, 3,200 insects, 1,500 shells, between
700 to 800 pieces of coral, and 2,500 mineral specimens; 3,000 books; and
the whole Linnaeus's correspondence, consisting of some 3,000 letters, with
a great many manuscripts form the hands of Linnaeus, his son, and other con
-temporary scientists.
1788年伦敦林奈学会成立,旨在Cultivation of the Science of Natural History
in all its branches and more especially of the Natural History of Great
Britain and Ireland.此不同于瑞典林奈会(1917年才成立),只在于林奈。史密斯担
任伦敦林奈会第一任主席,1814年受封爵。十四年后--矿石收藏早已出卖,动物标
本也多败坏--伦敦林奈会用三千几尼从他遗孀的手中买下了一切。1857年后一直
保存在林奈学会在Burlington 的屋内--现在是特别设计的,有空气调节干湿气温的
贮藏室。
表面看这是一件使瑞典后悔,让瑞典人脸上极不光彩的事,但科学没国界,也许这是
林奈遗产最好的结局。因为,至少遗产都得到英国妥善的研究与保存,直到二战的炮
火,物件都安全移到Wobern Abby, Bedfordshire保存。1940年,卡内基公司花两
千英磅给这笔不世的遗产照了相。有趣的是,照相的过程中还有一位女士的手被两百
年前的干荨麻(Nettle)标本刺了一痛,肿胞还跟新鲜荨麻刺的一样痒。
林奈的瑞典传记作者Dr Hagberg如是评说:at first one feels sad because all
this has not found a lasting home in a Swedish institution, and slightly
bitter against those who were to blame for such neglect, on second thought
one realizes that a much worse fate might easily have overtaken the
collections....Made accessible in a cosmopolitan city and scientific centre
such as London, they have been of untold importance to Linné's international
renown. Sweden owes an ineffaceable debt of gratitude to the Linnean
Society for the reverence with which it has administered and cared for
its priceless possession.
Burlington House, Picadilly, London, W1J 0BF
Librarian and archivist Gina Douglas with Linnaeus' books and specimens.
Dragonflies in the Linnean collection.
The Systema Naturae from 1735.
本来还想再写一个贴把参考书列一下,致谢什么的。搞得有点滑稽,就不是网贴了。
我看英文维基林奈一条,参考书索引达136条,虽然写得不错。但,我怕列这许多就
有点张扬了,又不是写博士论文。虽然,写这条线还是读了不少书,撞见几本好书,
对林奈学也深深解悟,至少比刚写时深入多了。这要感谢时间感谢咖啡,林奈学整体
还是英国做得最好,写的书也好。
最后列些什么呢?昨晚翻一本牛津版的Flower Hunters,上好的一本书。起首林奈
章里陈述一些很珍贵的“思想”,我无法不列一下。林奈留给后世的家产外更多是精神
遗产,启蒙世界的自然文化结构。我要点两点:一是他的界纲目属种层次,此不表他
的性体系,因为毕竟后来成为陈迹。二是他的二名法,虽然并非他首创,但因为他科
学界开始贯彻执行了,对后世的影响不可思量:
With his love of order, Linnaeus made analogies also with geography units
(Kingdom, province, territory, parish and village) and the military(regiment,
company, platoon, squad and soldier)...Extending upwards, later biologists
would put a category phylum above class, with kingdom at the top.
As our own species, which is human being, would be classified as being in
Kingdom: Animalia, Phylum: Chordata, Class: Mammalia,
Order: Primates, Family: Hominidae,
Genus: Homo
Species: Homo sapiens
Beauty of such a system, to Linnaeus, was that in principle every species
could be given a name which specified exactly where it stood in hierarchy
of nature.
二名法的真正实行还是源于集体植物行,此点甚妙:Binomial system begins to
appear in Linnaeus's writings only at end of the 1740s, and wasn't finally
formalized until 1758. Lisbet Koerner has come up with a neat explanation
of why its importance became clear to Linnaeus then...throughout his adult
Linnaeus concerned about the economic problems of his homeland, at the
end of 1740s he carried out a project to determine which plants various
kinds of domestic animals preferred to eat. The experiment was disarmingly
simple. A variety of beasts(cows, pigs, etc) were set loose to wander the
meadows around Uppsala, each with a student diligently following his animal
and noting down what they ate - using, of course, quill pens dipped in ink
pots carried by the students along with sheaves of paper. As the animal
gobbled up the various fodder plants the students had to identify the species
and write down the names before the plants wee devoured, certainly with
no time for looking things up in reference books, even if they had been able
to carry them. Clearly, they would have written shortened versions of the
names. So, although Koerner herself agrees that this is merely a conjecture,
it is no surprise that in the pamphlet describing the results of the study(Pan
Svecicus, pub.1749) Linnaeus introduces a genuine binomial nomenclature
for the first time.
前面贴子中林奈二名法命名的植物拉丁引得够多了,我想再列一些常见的植物种,随
后再列几个动物名(英、中、拉丁、释义):
常见的植物
Banana, 香蕉; Musa paradisiacal L.; fruit of paradise
Broccoli, 花椰菜; Brassica oleraceae L.; cabbage, smelly
Buttercup, 毛茛; Ranunculus acris L.; little frog, bitter
Coneflower, 日光菊; Rudbeckia occidentalis L., Rudbeck, western
Cucumber, 黄瓜; Cucumis sativus L.; cucumber, cultivated
Daisy, 菊; Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.; gold flower, while flower
Live oak, 栎; Quercus virginiana L.; oak, of Virginia
Marijuana, 大麻; Cannabis sativa L.; hemp, cultivated
Orange, 橙; Citrus sinensis L.; citron, Chinese
Poison ivy, 毒藤; Rhus toxicodendron L.; sumac, poison leaves
Red clover, 红车轴; Trifolium incarnate L.; three leaves, blood red
Sugar maple, 糖枫; Acer saccharum L.; maple, sugar
Tobacco, 烟草; Nicotiana tabacum L.; Nicot’s tobacco
Twinflower, 北极花; Linnea borealis L.; Linnaeus, northern
Violet, 堇菜; Viola sororia L.; violet, of sister
White pine, 白松; Pinus strobes L.; pine, pinecone
常见动物学名:
Blue whale, 蓝鲸; Balaenoptera musculus L.; whale-wing, little mouse
Boa constrictor, 蟒蛇; Boa constrictor snake,; one that squeezes
Cat, 猫; Felis domesticus; cat, domestic
Dog, 狗; Canis familiaris L.; hound, domestic
Elephant (African), 非洲象; Loxdonta Africana; elephant, great
Elephant (Indian), 亚洲象; Elephas maximus L.; elephant, great
Frog (American), 蛙, Rana pipiens; frog, chirping
Gray wolf, 狼; Canis lupus L.; hound, wolf
Harlequin duck, 丑鸭; Histrionicus histrionicus L.; theatrical, theatrical
Honey bee, 蜜蜂; Apis mellifera L.; bee, honey-bearing
Horse, 马; Equus caballus L.; horse, packhorse
House mouse, 鼠; Mus musculus L.; mouse, little mouse
Human beings, 人; Homo sapiens L.; human, wise
Mayfly, 蜉蝣; Ameletus andersoni; unstudied, Anderson’s
Merganser duck, 秋沙鸭; Mergus merganser L.; seagull, diving
Moose, 麋鹿; Alces alces L.; elk, elk
Robin (American), 知更鸟; Turdus migratorius L.; thrush, wanderer
Salmon (Atlantic), 鲑; Salmo salar L.; salmon, salty
Toad (American), 蟾蜍; Bufo americanus; toad, American
Tyrranosaurus rex, 霸王龙; Tyrranosaurus rex; tyrant-lizard, king
Wild Turkey, 火鸡; Meleagris gallopavo L.; Meleager’s, peacock
to be continued...
- posted on 12/22/2010
昨天想将这一线匆匆结束了,昨晚把另外两线勘误更正并补全,今天把昨天拖得太长
的最后一贴分化一下,作一个短短的结语,是为跋。
英文插得太多确实不好,但是林奈原话与书信,转译一次的引述不好再转译,这是我
个人的习惯。因为转译一次也有误会,再经我这不懂翻译的人瞎译,整线的可信度就
要大打折扣,虽然那一线强调不使用外语或乱拼外来语,没有办法。许多词句如果不
是强译就只好引外语,因为汉语的基础工作根本不到位,应对能力也不足,世界信息
铺天盖地,总不能如驼鸟一样把头埋在沙堆里。
再写些什么呢?把十八世纪的总体纲要一下,横向比较一下林奈所处的启蒙时代的欧
洲政治风云与诸多启蒙人物,真是个响当当的时代啊!令我向往,绵延不尽。战争与
政治风云:北方战争Nortern war(1700-21), 西班牙王位继承战the War of Spanish
Succession(1701-14), 奥地利王位继承战the War of Austrian Succession(1740
-48), 七年战争the Seven Years’ War (1756-63), 俄土战争 (1710-13)(1735-39)
(1768-74) (1787-92)various Russo-Turkish wars, 美国独立战争the American
colonies’ War of Independence(1775-83)....
欧洲主要王室的不少君主与启蒙时代迎头并进,以至于成了启蒙时代的领军人物:In
Russia Peter the Great and Catherin II, born a princess of Anhalt-Zerbst
and Czarina from 1762-96, developed their country into a great European
power. Frederick the Great who reigned from 1740 to 1786 and whose
success at “inner colonization” was no less than his military accomplish
-ments, established the power status of Prussia. The Holy Roman Emperor
Joseph II, son of Frederick’s opponent the Archduchess Maria Theresa of
Austria and coregent with her from 1765 until her death in 1780, acquired
through a series of reform measures the reputation of being a humanitarian
monarch, despite the fact that he brought upon his country several grave
domestic and foreign crises. From 1715-74 Louis XV was king of France;
the powerful influence of his mistress Madame de Pompadour prevailed
from 1743-64. The first Hanoverian King of England, George I, ascended
the throne in 1714; he was succeeded in 1727 by his son, George II. After
the latter’s death in 1760, his grandson George Wilhelm Frederick, the first
member of this dynasty born in England, took the throne as George III.
哲学给十八世纪的整体智识生活带来重大的影响,这里值得一提的人物:在德国,莱
布尼茨的活动Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz(1646-1716) 还有他的后继沃尔夫者
Christian von Wolff的活动与林奈一生平行。批评家与戏剧家莱辛Gotthold Ephraim
Lessing (1729-81)也与他同时。莱辛的宗教哲学是自然神教,批判天启宗教。另一
位与林奈同时代的康德Immanuel Kant(1714-1804)批判理性论(rationalism)已开
始。法国哲学作家伏尔泰与卢梭与林奈都逝于同一年(1778)。
那一年,哥德二十八岁,席勒十八岁,正在斯图加特教会学校学军医。在音乐领域中,
巴赫逝于1750年, 享德尔九年以后,莫扎特生于1756年,贝多芬1770年。
任何十八世纪政治的,知识或文化背景研究都离不开数学-一个时代思维最本质的精
华。伯努利Daniel Bernoulli(1700-83), 著名的贝塞尔(Basel)家族的后裔,医生、
解剖与植物学教授,后来成为物理学家,是数学物理学(mathematical physics)的
创始人之一。多才多艺且极富有创造力的数学与物理学家欧拉Leonhard Euler(1707
-83)也象伯努利一样生于贝塞尔家族。欧拉1730年去了彼得堡并终老于此(1783)。
1744-76年他的主要活动是在柏林科学院。数学,这理性中的理性,启蒙时代的精神
,成了人们乐于学习与探寻的课题。林奈也用他的系统与精炼的方式表现这个大时代
的风貌。凭籍他的天才与一生耕耘,外观与内省,他创立了自然学的体系。在启蒙时代
土壤上承前启后,继往开来。
最后,以一朵纪念林奈的南非小蓝花终结,结的果也够颠茄,中文有粗译龙葵,英文
devil's apple - species of Nightshade....天仙子,茄科茄属:
Solanum linnaeanum Hepper & P.-M.L.Jaeger
林奈生平大事记
1707年,出生于罗斯胡尔特,斯莫兰省
1727年,在隆德大学学习
1728年,乌普萨拉
1732年,拉普兰旅行
1734年,法轮与达拉那省旅行
1735-38年,游学丹麦、德、荷兰英法等国
1735年,获医学博士,Systema naturae(自然系统)第一版发行
1736年,出版Fundamenta botanica(植物学原理)
1737年,出版Flora Laponica(拉普兰植物志)
1739年,在斯德哥尔摩行医,创科学会,结婚
1741年,乌普萨拉医学教授,厄兰岛与高特兰岛旅行
1744年,担任乌普萨拉科学院秘书
1745年,出版Flora Suecica(瑞典植物志)
1746年,完成西约特省旅行,Fauna Suecica(瑞典动物志)
1749年,斯科纳省旅行
1751年,出版Philosophia botanica(植物哲学)
1753年,出版Species plantarum(植物种志)
1758年,购买哈马比农庄Hammarby,Systema naturae第十版发行
1761年,被皇室加封
1766-68年,自然系统Systema naturae最后一版发行
1778年,林奈在乌普萨拉离世
1783年,林奈之子小卡尔去世
1784年,林奈收藏品出售给英国
THE END
- Re: 林奈 - Carl von Linné, Carolus Linnaeus (Finale)posted on 12/25/2010
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